Ehsan Allah Kalteh, Mohammad Hassan Lotfi, Hossein Akhondi, Shahin Izadi,
Volume 14, Issue 1 (1-2025)
This article explores the distinction between education and literacy, emphasizing their close yet separate meanings. Education typically refers to formal schooling and academic qualifications, while literacy now includes a wider range of skills beyond basic reading and writing, such as digital, financial, and health literacy. Education is achieved through structured learning environments and results in certifications, whereas literacy involves the application of knowledge to effect significant changes in one’s life. Effective learning brings about stable changes in behavior, unlike temporary shifts due to external factors. The article argues that true literacy depends on various societal factors, including supportive families, well-equipped schools, and community resources. Despite this, many individuals receive degrees without attaining comprehensive literacy. In epidemiological research, addressing bias and confounding variables is crucial. Bias, such as misclassification bias, can skew results by misrepresenting data. Confounding occurs when an external variable influences both exposure and outcome, potentially distorting the observed relationships. Residual confounding may persist despite adjustments, highlighting the need for accurate indicators. The article questions the validity of using educational level as a proxy for literacy, suggesting it may not fully capture literacy’s complexity and introduce residual confounding.
